Why groundwater is relevant

Given that water is necessary for sustaining human life, as well as many other important activities like washing, cleaning, agriculture, irrigation and industry, groundwater is an incredibly important aspect of our water supply. According to statistics provided by the United States Geological Survey, groundwater is actually often more important than surface water.

In urban locations, groundwater makes up around a third of the water that utility companies supply to homes and businesses. One of the most high-profile threats to our groundwater supplies is a relatively recent one: fracking.

Hydraulic fracturing, otherwise known as fracking, is the process of extracting shale oil and gas from rock formations underground for use as a source of energy. Part of this process involves injecting chemicals into the rock to break it apart and release the fossil fuels stored therein. Concerned parties have argued that doing so could jeopardise nearby water supplies, if the chemicals themselves or the methane contained within the rock leach into those supplies. The fracking industry has gone to great pains to insist that its methods are completely safe and do not endanger groundwater, with continual monitoring equipment being introduced to verify the safety of water supplies at all times.

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Join us for upcoming webinar Nov 09 Groundwater Sustaina Sustainable Groundwa Groundwater Manageme June October November December. Office of Governor. Visit Governor Website. Natural Resources Agency. It covers an area of It ensures protection to primeval beech forest growth of typical composition and structure on andesite and andesite tuffs. It ensures protection to rare natural communities of moor-alder Slansky mountain forests. This area is covered by marshy-alder forest of lowland type located about m above the sea level.

The investigated area is agricultural, with two villages and two animal farms. Both villages and farms are supplied with potable water from ground sources that comply with legislative requirements on potable water intended for mass consumption. In villages there are some families that have their own individual wells.

Also some of them keep small number of farm animals. The investigated area with location of rivers, ground water sources, farms, manure storage, and water sampling sites is depicted in Figure 1. Village 1 is located about m above sea level and a small river Zidovsky potok, that begins in a mountain ridge about m above sea level, flows through this village where its banks are mostly regulated.

It flows to another small river Torocky potok which originates in the same mountain ridge and passes close to Village 1 and Village 2 m above sea level and next to farm 2. Both rivers are small, but in case of heavy rain or rapid melting of snow they have not sufficient capacity to drain off all water and may overflow.

The last heavy flooding occurred in when water on some streets of Village 1 was more than 0. Figure 1. Schematic presentation of the investigated area. Site 1b: Farm 1 next to Village 1. Site 1c: Village 1—house connected to water distribution system. Site 1d: Village 1—private well 15 m from manure storage used by family keeping some farm animals 2 pigs, 4 cattle, 15—20 hens. Site 1e: Farm 2 next to Village 2. Site 1f: Unused well. Surface Water Site 2a: Torocky potok.

Site 2b: Torocky potok—downriver from the house of family keeping some farm animals manure storage 15 m from the river. Site 2c: Junction of Torocky and Zidovsky potok. Site 2d: Torocky potok upriver from Farm 2. Site 2e: Torocky potok—downriver from Farm 2. Site 2f: Zidovsky potok—upriver from Farm 1. Village 1 is supplied with potable water from a drilled well, 15 m deep. This water is regularly checked for its chemical and bacteriological quality. Only small number of inhabitants of this village uses water from individual wells the safety of which is not ensured Fox et al.

Farm 1 located next to this village is oriented on keeping sheep and goats about A ground water source supplies potable water to farm 2. It is located 80 m from the manure storage. The water is again pumped into a reservoir of capacity m 3. The farm keeps about 80 fattening cattle and 20 horses that are used mostly for recreational purposes. There is an unused water well close to the Farm 2, m away from manure storage.

Two liters of water were sampled to chemically clean bottles for physico-chemical evaluation and 1 liter was collected to a sterile bottle for microbiological examination. The samples were processes immediately after returning to a laboratory. Chemical examination of surface and ground water included determination of pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand COD Mn , chlorides, nitrates, iron, and phosphates.

In addition, sum of calcium and magnesium and free chlorine was determined only in potable water and total dissolved solids TDS only in surface water. Determination of counts of relevant bacteria was carried out in compliance with the Slovak Republic Government Regulations No. A pour-plate method was used and the counts of BC22 and BC37 were determined using meat-peptone agar and aerobic incubation at relevant temperature for 24 h.

In the absence of colonies, the incubation was prolonged for additional 24 h. According to the respective regulation, lactose fermentation test was performed for confirmation of coliform bacteria.

It consisted of filtering ml or 10 ml of water sample for water intended for mass consumption or individual consumption, respectively through a membrane filter filter of pore size 0. The filter was then placed onto a solid selective medium containing sodium azide to suppress growth of Gram-negative bacteria and colorless 2,3,5-trifenyltetrazolium chloride, which is reduced by intestinal enterococci to red formazan. Results of physico-chemical examination are presented in Tables 1 , 2.

Table 1. Results of physico-chemical examination of surface water during the monitored year and legislative limits of parameters according SR Government Regulations No.

Table 2. Results of physico-chemical examination of ground water monitored during 1 year period and legislative limits of parameters according SR Government Regulations No. Levels of all investigated parameters were within the limits specified by relevant regulation except for N- NO 3 - Figure 2 , which was exceeded in most of the samples. Figure 2. Level of N-NO 3 determined in the investigated surface water in individual seasons and legislative limit for this parameter according to the Slovak Republic Government Regulations No.

Results of microbiological examination of monitored waters are presented in Tables 3 , 4. Table 3. Results of microbiological examination of surface water collected in individual seasons. Table 4. Results of microbiological examination of ground water collected in individual seasons. The levels of nitrates in samples of surface and ground water determined in samples collected in individual seasons are presented in Figures 2 , 3.

Figure 3. Level of nitrates NO 3 - determined in the investigated ground water in individual seasons and legislative limit of this parameter according to the Slovak Republic Government Regulations No. According to WHO , neither E. The Water Quality stipulates that fecal enterococci must not be detected in any ml sample of water. Protection of water sources from pollution that can ensure availability of potable water of good quality is an essential requirement for sustainable development.

Surface waters are polluted by point sources, such as agricultural or industrial installations, or via overland flow from rain or snowmelt. Subsequently, by transport through the soil profile, pollutants can reach groundwater and, according to their character, can have very serious consequences. The physico-chemical properties of water, particularly pH, temperature, the presence of organic matter, level of dissolved oxygen, electric conductivity, turbidity, content of NH 3 , metals, and other chemical components, affect the quality of drinking water and some of them may exert direct effect on the health of consumers Pitter, In addition, these parameters can affect survival of potential disease agents and the effectiveness of disinfection Block, It is influenced by biological processes that occur in water.

N-substances, P-substances and chlorides serve as indicators of fecal pollution but some of these substances may have also serious health effects. Chemical oxygen demand COD is an important water quality parameter.

Higher COD levels in surface water mean a greater amount of oxidisable organic material, which will reduce dissolved oxygen DO levels.

A reduction in DO can lead to anaerobic conditions, which is deleterious to higher aquatic life forms. Presence of COD in ground water indicates the risk of development of by-products trihalomethanes in water disinfected with active chlorine. The by-products BPs of chlorine disinfectants can affect the health of consumers of the disinfected water or induce in them various responses.

Their extent depends on a number of factors such as the period of action, concentration, and frequency of exposure Gunten, One of the most common groundwater contaminants in rural areas is nitrate. Nitrate in groundwater originates primarily from fertilizers, septic systems and manure storage or spreading operations.

Nitrate compounds are soluble and the nitrate ion is not retained in soil. Nitrate is thus the nitrogen species most exposed to loss by leaching.

Excess levels in drinking water are particularly serious for infants as their immature digestive system allows the reduction of nitrate to nitrite leading to methemoglobinemia.

However, they are not considered indicators of possible presence of other more serious residential or agricultural contaminants, such as bacteria or pesticides McCasland et al.

Our monitoring showed that levels of all chemical parameters determined in samples of surface water were below the limits specified by the relevant regulation in all seasons except for concentrations of N- NO 3 - —which exceeded the legislative limits at all sampling sites except for the site 2e Torocky potok Figure 2.

Of chemical parameters determined in ground water increased levels were observed only for chlorides, nitrates, and phosphates. There were considerable differences between quality of water intended for mass supply 1a, 1b,1c, 1e and water from private wells 1d, 1f. The level of chlorides was exceeded only in sample 1d private well in Village 1, used by a family keeping some farm animals—the well is located 15 m from manure storage in each season Higher concentration of chlorides in regions with a low content of salts indicates organic pollution of water.

In such cases ammonia, nitrites and nitrates are also increased. Phosphates were exceeded also in this sample 1d , 2 times 1. Examination of samples of water from an unused well 1f , located at a distance of m from manure storage and close to farm 2 showed that nitrate level exceeded the legislative limit in all seasons.

Other chemical parameters complied with the regulations but microbiological examination indicated considerable bacteriological pollution of water in this well as the levels of all examined groups of bacteria highly exceeded the legislative limits. Phosphorus is a common constituent of agricultural fertilizers, manure, and organic wastes in sewage and industrial effluent. Phosphates in ground water can also originate from P-deposits.

The level of nitrates was exceeded only in private wells but still was not as high as to cause serious problems in adults. However, it was unsuitable for infants.

Ground water in source 1e showed somewhat higher level of nitrates in comparison with source 1a Ground water reservoir in Village 1 supplying water to the village and Farm 1. The original WHO recommendations for the use of chlorine as a disinfectant stipulated a minimum free chlorine concentration of 0. This level was not exceeded in any sample ground water, surface water. Runoff is the key mechanism of pathogen transport to surface waters.

During a rain event, the partitioning of flow between surface runoff and infiltration through the soil depends upon a number of factors. Storm intensity and duration, soil hydraulic characteristics e. If rainfall intensity exceeds the capacity of the soil to infiltrate water, overland flow occurs, and microorganisms can be carried rapidly in surface runoff Tyrrel and Quinton, ; Unc and Goss, To be available for transport in runoff, pathogens are released from the manure, most of them remain associated with the fecal deposit.

Their amount depends upon a number of factors such as the manure itself, loading of pathogens in the manure, the pathogen types and survival characteristics, and the age and source of the manure. Transport through the soil profile and in ground water involves an extremely complex interplay of physical and chemical processes that depend upon the size and surface properties of the microorganism, the composition, mineral surface properties, and texture of the soil or aquifer material, hydraulic conditions and other.

Pathogen survival in water also depends on many factors including water quality e. Exposure to UV light is a key factor in bacterial, viral, and protozoan die-off in surface waters Rosen, ; Cotruvo et al. An aquifer environment also protects pathogens against UV exposure and facilitates their survival in ground water.

Our microbiological examination concentrated on indicators of fecal contamination that is associated with transfer of many disease agents. While BC22 reflect general contamination of water, the BC37 is more important parameter as it indicates contamination with microflora of warm-blooded animals. The BC22 counts were exceeded in source 1a Ground water reservoir in Village 1, supplying water to the village and Farm 1 in summer and autumn and in individual sources, where less strict requirements were applied, highest counts were detected also summer but also in winter.

The counts of BC37 were exceeded in source 1a in autumn and were much exceeded in individual sources practically in all seasons. Determination of bacteriological safety of water intended for drinking have been associated for long time on detection of total coliform bacteria CB. It was designed to detect potential, not an actual health hazard.